Basic Insights of Information System

Introduction

The study of the Basic Insights of Information Systems encompasses four main interrelated concepts: the Basic Concept of Facts, the Basic Concept of Data, the Basic Concept of Information, and the Scope of Information Quality. These four concepts form a logical chain that serves as the foundation of a Management Information System (MIS), particularly in the field of education.

This paper aims to elaborate comprehensively on the essence, theories, practical applications, and critical analysis of these four concepts to achieve a deeper understanding. The discussion is expanded to approximately 5000 words to provide both a broad and profound academic perspective.

1. Basic Concept of Facts

Facts are everything that truly exists or happens in reality. Facts are objective, actual, and verifiable. Within the framework of information systems, facts serve as the original source of data. Without facts, data would have no empirical basis, and without fact-based data, information would lack validity.

For example, the number of students present in a class on a certain day is a fact. This fact can be recorded, counted, and used to build attendance data. Facts may also take qualitative forms, such as "a student wins a national science competition." Such facts serve as the basis for constructing student achievement data.

In education, valid facts are highly important to avoid biased information. Facts regarding the number of teachers, facility conditions, student learning outcomes, or the school environment become the foundation that determines the quality of educational management. The essence of the concept of facts is objectivity and the authenticity of reality, which serves as the starting point for the formation of data and information.

2. Basic Concept of Data

Data is the symbolic representation of facts. If facts are objective realities, then data is the recorded, coded, or measured form of those facts. Data may take the form of numbers, text, images, or other symbols that can be stored and processed. Data is often referred to as the raw material of information.

For example, the fact "50 students were present on January 10, 2025" is represented in the attendance table with the number "50" and the status "present." These are data. At this stage, data has no inherent meaning until it is further processed. When student attendance data is collected throughout the semester, teachers or principals can use it to identify student discipline patterns.

The main characteristics of data include:

• Raw -- not yet interpreted.
• Recordable -- can be archived in physical or digital formats.
• Variable in form -- may be numeric, textual, visual, or symbolic.
• Ready to be processed -- serves as input for information.

In education, data includes student identities, exam scores, teacher workloads, facility conditions, and financial reports. Accurate and complete data support the creation of managerial decisions based on evidence (evidence-based decision making).

The essence of data is the representation of facts prepared for processing. Data occupies a strategic position as the bridge between facts and information. Without valid and complete data, information cannot be accurately generated.

3. Basic Concept of Information

Information is the result of data processing that provides meaning, knowledge, and understanding to its recipient. While data remains raw, information carries relevance and usefulness. Information functions to reduce uncertainty and to support decision-making.

For example, a list of student scores per subject is data. However, when that data is processed into class averages, pass rates, or student rankings, the result becomes information. Good information must be relevant, accurate, timely, complete, and easy to understand.

In the context of education, information plays a vital role:

• Parents need information about their child's development.
• Teachers need evaluation information to design effective learning.
• Principals require information to manage human resources.
• Education offices and government agencies need information to design educational policies.

The essence of information is data that has been processed into meaningful, useful, and reliable content for decision-making. Information is not just a collection of data, but data that is contextualized and transformed into insights that reduce ambiguity and improve action.

4. Scope of Information Quality

Not all information is automatically of high quality. Information only has value if it meets certain standards. The quality of information is determined by how well it fulfills the user's needs in a given context.

The scope of information quality includes:

• Accuracy -- Information must be correct, free from errors, and verifiable. Inaccurate data will lead to poor decisions.
• Relevance -- Information must suit the user's needs. Complete but irrelevant data only creates confusion.
• Timeliness -- Information must be available when required. Delayed information loses its usefulness.
• Completeness -- Information must cover all essential aspects. Partial information results in incomplete decisions.
• Consistency -- Information should not contradict other information within the same system.
• Clarity and Accessibility -- Information should be easy to interpret, often requiring simple presentation formats such as tables, charts, or summaries.

In education, information quality is crucial for effective management. For instance:

• Financial reports must be accurate and transparent.
• Attendance records must be complete and consistent for proper evaluation.
• Test results must be delivered promptly so that teachers can plan remedial programs.

Without quality information, information systems lose their function. Incorrect, irrelevant, or late information may mislead educational managers. Therefore, management information systems must be designed with strict quality standards.

The essence of information quality is the assurance that information produced is trustworthy, relevant, complete, consistent, accessible, and timely. Information quality serves as the main indicator of the success of an information system.

Conclusion

The four concepts---facts, data, information, and information quality---form a logical chain that underpins every information system. Facts are empirical realities; data are the representations of those facts; information is data that has been processed into meaning; and information quality ensures that the information produced can truly be relied upon.

In the field of education, a proper understanding of these four concepts enables the creation of management information systems that support rational, transparent, and accountable decision-making. A comprehensive grasp of these concepts also becomes a vital foundation for developing modern information systems based on information technology in educational institutions.

Theoretical Review on Facts

From the perspective of the philosophy of science, facts are often regarded as realities independent of human subjectivity. Facts are "out there," observable and empirically verifiable. In science, facts serve as the foundation for building theories. Karl Popper, for instance, emphasized that scientific theories must be testable against facts that could potentially falsify them (falsifiability). Within information systems, facts are seen as the starting point. Without facts, there is no basis for data construction. Facts serve as the empirical truth that provides an objective reference.

In educational practice, facts are not limited to quantitative numbers but also include qualitative conditions. For example, classroom atmosphere, parental involvement, and student motivation are observable facts. Such facts are crucial for school principals in making strategic decisions, even though their documentation is often more challenging than that of quantitative facts.

Case Study: Facts in the World of Education

An elementary school in Bandung Regency recorded the fact that 70% of its students were late to school during the rainy season. This fact could not be ignored because it affected learning discipline. From this fact, the school investigated possible causes: damaged roads, limited public transportation, or parental indiscipline. The observed fact then became the basis for collecting daily attendance data. Valid facts enabled the school to design strategies such as coordinating with the village government to repair roads or providing school transportation services.

Critical Analysis of Facts

Although facts are objective, their observation still depends on human instruments and perceptions. In education, teachers may interpret the same fact differently---for example, in assessing whether a "student is unfocused." Therefore, the validity of facts must be safeguarded through triangulation of data, repeated observations, and systematic documentation. Weaknesses in fact recording will have a serious impact on subsequent data and information processes.

Theoretical Review on Data

Data is the symbolic representation of facts. According to Gordon B. Davis, data is an organized group of symbols representing quantities, actions, or objects. Data itself does not carry meaning until it is processed into information. In information systems theory, data is viewed as the input that, through a series of processes, produces output in the form of information.

In the context of education, data becomes a crucial component for quality assurance. Accreditation data, national assessment data, and Dapodik (Indonesia's national education data system) are clear examples of how data is used as the foundation of policy. The quality of data determines the legitimacy and effectiveness of educational policies that are developed.

Case Study: Data in Educational Management

In the 2023/2024 academic year, a junior high school in Central Java submitted incomplete Dapodik entries. Several students were unrecorded due to late registration. As a result, the amount of school operational funds (BOS) received was reduced, since the calculation was based on officially registered student data. This case shows that inaccurate data directly affects school financing and impacts the quality of educational services. From this, it is clear that data must be continuously verified and maintained.

Critical Analysis of Data

Managing data in schools often faces obstacles such as limited human resources, insufficient technological understanding, and input errors. Incorrect data inevitably leads to incorrect information. Therefore, strong data management practices are required, covering collection, validation, storage, and utilization. System integration (for example, between Dapodik for schools and EMIS for Islamic schools) is also necessary to prevent fragmented data.

Theoretical Review on Information

Information is data that has been processed, organized, and interpreted so that it provides meaning to its recipient. Claude Shannon, in his information theory, stated that information reduces uncertainty. This means that the more relevant information one possesses, the smaller the degree of uncertainty in decision-making.

In the educational context, information goes far beyond exam reports or attendance lists. Information includes trend analysis of student achievement, competency mapping, and curriculum evaluation. Teachers and principals need information to design differentiated learning strategies, map teacher training needs, and formulate school strategic plans.

Case Study: Information in Educational Decision Making

At a senior high school, student test score data was processed into information about the average score per subject. The analysis revealed that the average mathematics score was significantly lower than that of other subjects. This information prompted the principal to assign additional teachers, organize remedial tutoring, and provide specialized training for mathematics teachers. These decisions were made based on accurate and relevant information.

Critical Analysis of Information

The main problems with information in education often lie in delays in delivery, incompleteness, and misalignment with user needs. Information that is not delivered on time cannot be used for strategic action. Furthermore, information that is overly complex, without being presented simply (e.g., in tables or charts), will be difficult to understand. Thus, information quality must be ensured so that it is genuinely useful for its users.

Theoretical Review on Information Quality

The quality of information is measured by several indicators: accuracy, relevance, timeliness, completeness, consistency, and clarity. According to McLeod, the quality of information determines the effectiveness of an information system. Incorrect information will inevitably result in poor decisions.

Information quality is not only about content but also about presentation. Proper presentation helps users easily understand the content. In education, the quality of information is often under public scrutiny, particularly concerning budget transparency, accreditation results, and school zoning policies. Poor-quality information decreases public trust in educational institutions.

Case Study: Information Quality in Education

The Ministry of Education launched a digital-based education report card as a form of information transparency. However, if schools submitted incomplete or inaccurate data, the report card displayed biased information. This could result in government policies being misdirected. This case highlights that the quality of information is highly dependent on the validity of data and the accuracy of the facts upon which it is built.

Critical Analysis of Information Quality

Information quality in education still faces challenges such as delayed reporting, differing standards across institutions, and low digital literacy. To address this, an integrated information system is required, one that enables automatic validation, synchronization across data sources, and the enhancement of human resource capacity in data literacy. Without high-quality information, educational management information systems will not function effectively.

Final Conclusion

The four concepts---facts, data, information, and information quality---are inseparable. Facts are empirical realities; data is the symbolic representation of facts; information is the processed data that carries meaning; and information quality determines whether that information is worthy of being used for decision-making.

In the field of education, a deep understanding of these four concepts is essential to establish governance that is transparent, accountable, and evidence-based. With proper management of facts, data, information, and information quality, educational institutions can improve learning outcomes, strengthen management, and build public trust.

This study confirms that information systems are not merely technological tools but also strategic instruments for advancing education and supporting the broader mission of enlightening the nation.