Philosophers from Islam

The history of Islamic civilization is not just characterized by political, military, and economic success, but also the existence of great philosophers who contributed significantly towards the advancement of science.  Islam has always placed highest priority on seeking knowledge since the inception of its civilization and enjoys a rich intellectual heritage.  The Quran itself is an urgence to people to reflect, think, and acquire knowledge. It was the same drive that produced numerous Muslim thinkers who produced seminal work in the social sciences, astronomy, mathematics, medicine, and philosophy.

Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, Al-Ghazali, Ibn Rushd, and Ibn Khaldun are five names that are well known to both Islamic and Western cultures, but there are more who were also exceptionally renowned. The writings of all these people have contributed significantly to the history of philosophy and science because they are all people who thought differently.  They were not only inheritors of the thought of ancient Greeks, but also trailblazers who integrated philosophy and Islamic ethics.  

1. Al-Farabi (872--950): Political Philosopher and Second Teacher

Al-Farabi has also been referred to as al-Mu'allim al-Thani, or the Second Teacher, after Aristotle.  The nickname reflects his elite status in Islamic philosophical tradition because he was able to assimilate the Greek philosophical legacy into Islamic learning.  Al-Farabi is renowned in political philosophy tradition for his conceptions of Madnah al-Filah, or the Ideal State.

The perfect state, for Al-Farabi, is one that is led by a ruler who is both politically wise and spiritually profound.

Such leaders are known as philosopher-kings since they have a deep understanding of what truth truly is and can lead their followers towards true pleasure. Plato strongly impacted this idea; however, Al-Farabi adapted it so that it would present an Islamic perspective. He emphasized that leaders and followers could only attain the highest possible degree of bliss if they submit to religious commandments. In addition to political philosophy, Al-Farabi produced significant works on music, metaphysics, and logic.  He authored, among others, Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir, an encyclopedic work on music which deals with the theory of harmony and the role of music in human life.  Al-Farabi's multi-disciplinary works indicate that Islamic philosophy is not just about metaphysics but also about practical studies which impact the lives of society. 

2. Ibn Sina (980--1037): Doctor Philosopher and Polymath

Perhaps among the most well-known Muslim scientists in the annals of science is Ibn Sina, or Avicenna in the Western world.  He was a polymath, physician, and philosopher who wrote extensive works on various fields.  His mind was already prodigious at a young age, and at the age of 18, he had mastered nearly all the sciences that existed during his time.

His most significant medical work, Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb (Canon of Medicine), was a standard university reference in Europe until the 17th century.  The book discusses not just diseases and drugs but also healthcare systems, diagnosis, and prevention.  Ibn Sina conducted a comprehensive study of metaphysics, soul, and being in philosophy.

One of his most significant concepts is the theory of wajib al-wujud (necessary being) and mumkin al-wujud (possible being).  In his opinion, God is the sole necessary being, and all others exist in dependence upon Him and are considered possible.  This theology had a significant impact on subsequent theology and was a significant source in Islamic metaphysics.

Ibn Sina also formulated ideas regarding the human spirit.  In his view, the soul is a substance that exists independently of the body but is closely connected with it.  This perspective would significantly influence Western psychology and philosophy in the future.  Through his writing, Ibn Sina integrated Islamic concepts with the philosophy of Aristotle and Neoplatonism and thereby set a new path for the advancement of Islamic philosophy.

3. Al-Ghazali (1058--1111): Theologian, Sufi, and Philosopher

If Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina are called the heroes of philosophy, then Al-Ghazali is frequently referred to as a strict critic of philosophy. But this is not a very precise description, as Al-Ghazali did not completely reject philosophy; rather, he criticized those things which, in his opinion, were contrary to Islamic doctrine.

Tahafut al-Falasifah (Incoherence of the Philosophers) is a gargantuan composition by Al-Ghazali criticizing the thought of earlier philosophers, such as Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina.  He disproved the concept of the eternality of the universe and doubted God's understanding of certain things.  Islamic traditions contrast with this line of thinking, according to Al-Ghazali.

Al-Ghazali also worked immensely in a positive way.  His encyclopedic work, Ihya' Ulum al-Din, in Sufism integrates Sharia, ethics, and spirituality.  He reaffirmed the timelessness of Sufism for Muslims and framed it within an orthodox tradition based on this work.  Al-Ghazali is therefore commonly referred to as Hujjatul Islam (Defender of Islam) because of the reconciliation of Sufism with Sharia that he made.

Not only did Al-Ghazali have a profound impact on the Islamic world, but his influence on Western philosophy was vast as well.  As just one example, his concept of methodological doubt is held to have inspired modern Western philosophers like Ren Descartes.  Consequently, Al-Ghazali serves as a bridge between the European and Islamic schools of thought in philosophy in the context of critical philosophy.

4. Ibn Rushd (1126--1198): The Defender of Philosophy

Ibn Rushd, in contrast to Al-Ghazali, was referred to as a philosopher.  He was born in Andalusia and used the name Averroes in the West.  Ibn Rushd was posthumously labeled "The Commentator" in Europe due to his prolific commentaries on nearly all the works of Aristotle.

In response to Al-Ghazali's polemic against philosophy, he composed his celebrated book, Tahafut al-Tahafut (The Incoherence of the Incoherence).  

Ibn Rushd maintained that religion and philosophy are complementary, not opposite.  
He maintained that reason is a divine gift to utilize to grasp revelation.  
This position justified utilizing reason to grasp religion, in the opinion of Ibn Rushd.

In the Middle Ages, Ibn Rushd had a significant impact on Europe.  His ideas spawned the Latin Averroism movement that affected scholastic philosophy.  In reality, his ideas concerning the compatibility of faith and reason were in part to blame for the beginning of the Renaissance.

Besides philosophy, Ibn Rushd also composed books on Islamic law (fiqh) and medicine.  It is an indication that one who is a Muslim scholar can specialize in so many different fields without abandoning their religious obligations.  The contributions of Ibn Rushd in the field of Islamic philosophy were not only limited within Islam; they helped shape world philosophy to a great extent as well.

5. Ibn Khaldun (1332--1406): The Father of Modern Historiography and Sociology

The final surname that should be noted is Ibn Khaldun, who was a Tunisian historian, sociologist, and economist. Unlike his predecessors, who focused maximum attention on metaphysical philosophy, Ibn Khaldun focused maximum attention on the philosophy of social science and history.  His magnum opus, The Muqaddimah, is quoted often to be one of the most seminal works in human thought.

'Asabiyyah, social solidarity being the primary reason for a civilization's emergence and decline, is introduced by Ibn Khaldun in the Introduction.

He speculates that a dynasty or kingdom is established due to a tight feeling of group solidarity, peaks to its greatest glory, and subsequently breaks up as the solidarity is lost.

This theory is quite contemporary and is even regarded as being pre-Western sociological thought, like that of Auguste Comte and Emile Durkheim. Besides, Ibn Khaldun wrote about politics, education, and economics.  He maintained the necessity of cooperation among individuals in society in the establishment of civilization and admitted that social development is influenced by geographical and climatic conditions.  His contributions render him the father of modern social science.