Mass Demonstrations, Destruction, and Looting in Indonesia Due to Disappointment with the House of Representatives
These public expressions of discontent, frequently escalating into anarchic actions, underscore a significant decline in public trust in the legislative process and governance (Andriansyah & Ghofur, 2021). This phenomenon is indicative of deeper structural issues within Indonesia's democratic framework, prompting concerns about democratic regression (Siregar et al., 2022). The pervasive disillusionment often stems from a perception that the government's democratic practices deviate substantially from the foundational principles of Pancasila Democracy, leading to a weakening of its essence and implementation (Suganda & Suganda, 2024). This erosion of trust often manifests as large-scale demonstrations, reflecting a collective societal frustration with political identity issues and the perceived manipulation of democratic processes for political gain (Wingarta et al., 2021). The shift from an authoritarian regime to a more democratic government following the collapse of the New Order era, while promising greater transparency and public involvement through mechanisms like direct regional head elections, has paradoxically contributed to this disillusionment (Gunawan, 2021). This paradox arises because while democratization opened avenues for participation, the subjective interpretation of state democracy by the State-Society, divorced from the core tenets of Pancasila, has inadvertently fostered a fertile ground for such widespread public disaffection and protest (Sari et al., 2020). Furthermore, the increasing use of digital media for political mobilization, while enabling greater citizen participation, has concurrently amplified societal and political divisions through the proliferation of misinformation and hate speech, thereby exacerbating public discontent and polarization (Ylmaz et al., 2024). This dynamic highlights the complex interplay between democratic advancements and the challenges posed by new communication technologies in shaping public perception and political stability in Indonesia (Nurhayati & Suryadi, 2017) (Sustikarini, 2020). The rise of political polarization, further fueled by religious and ethnic mobilizations during contentious elections, demonstrates a deepening schism within the Indonesian populace, challenging the scholarly consensus that previously posited weak partisan identity and a lack of deep-seated polarization (Soderborg & Muhtadi, 2021). This growing polarization, particularly evident in the exploitation of religious and ethnic sentiments, further complicates the nation-building narrative and strains the liberal democratic norms that underpin Indonesian society (Ahmad, 2022). This complex interplay of factors ultimately threatens national integration, especially given the historical emphasis on unity in diversity enshrined in Bhinneka Tunggal Ika and Pancasila as the nation's philosophical foundation (Madrohim et al., 2021). Such societal divisions are further compounded by a perceived lack of effective political communication strategies from the government, which could otherwise mitigate public turmoil by emphasizing, educating, and persuading the populace on policy decisions and democratic principles (Rizkimawati & Kusumawardhana, 2021). The absence of robust civil society institutions further exacerbates this issue, as a strong civil society is crucial for supporting democratic processes and ensuring public participation in policy-making (Wulandari, 2017). Moreover, the infrequent and often unoptimized roles of government and political elites in addressing societal conflicts contribute significantly to this erosion of public trust, allowing minor disagreements to escalate into widespread unrest (Susanto, 2017). This suggests a critical need for enhanced civic education and inter-communal dialogue to bridge societal divides and foster a more inclusive political environment (Widodo & Muchtar, 2020). The historical context of Indonesia, marked by frequent social conflicts and the persistence of issues like corruption and political enmity, further highlights the fragility of its democratic institutions and the urgent need for effective conflict resolution mechanisms (Rahmawati et al., 2022). These persistent challenges not only undermine governance but also reflect a deeper national identity struggle, where the meaning of "being Indonesian" remains contested amidst diverse societal elements and historical grievances (Nordholt, 2001). This complexity is further intensified by Indonesia's inherent diversity, which, while a national asset, also presents a persistent challenge to national integrity, necessitating a continuous focus on multiculturalism and religious tolerance (Firdaus et al., 2020) (Sutopo, 2016). Indeed, to navigate this diversity successfully and prevent societal friction, a comprehensive understanding and appreciation of pluralism are imperative (Amiruddin et al., 2022). Multicultural education, therefore, becomes a crucial instrument for fostering a robust national character and promoting social cohesion within such a diverse nation (Sanur & Dermawan, 2023). This approach aims to minimize negative stereotyping and reduce the potential for conflict, thereby strengthening the nation's resilience against internal strife (Kurniawan & Mift, 2021). This educational imperative is especially salient given the increasing globalized influences and technological advancements that contribute to cultural degradation and shifts in moral character among the younger generation (Zubaidah & Arsih, 2021). This underscores the critical need for a renewed emphasis on character education within the national curriculum to instill values of tolerance, empathy, and civic responsibility (Fahmi et al., 2023). Ultimately, the integration of multicultural education, alongside comprehensive character development, is indispensable for cultivating a citizenry capable of navigating complex socio-political landscapes and safeguarding democratic stability in Indonesia (Rasimin, 2018) (Sugiarto, 2013). This educational framework, by fostering an environment that respects differences and discourages discrimination, can actively prevent instances of educational marginalization and contribute to broader social harmony (Karmila et al., 2021). Such an approach is vital not only for nurturing individual potential but also for cultivating a collective consciousness that upholds the principles of unity in diversity, thereby reinforcing national resilience against centrifugal forces (Sudigdo et al., 2020) (Asroni, 2022). This comprehensive approach to education, integrating both multicultural and character-building components, is crucial for addressing the current crisis of national character in Indonesia, which has seen a decline in values like cooperation, simplicity, unity, and environmental respect (Sakti et al., 2024). The erosion of these fundamental values, coupled with the observed moral degradation, underscores the urgent necessity for a systemic overhaul in educational paradigms to effectively address the crisis of character and cultivate a populace imbued with a strong sense of national identity and civic responsibility (Sugiarto, 2013). Consequently, the Ministry of Education has declared the commencement of National Character Education, focusing on 18 core values aimed at fostering a more virtuous and responsible citizenry (Setyanto et al., 2019). This initiative represents a pivotal step towards rebuilding national character and addressing the societal issues that have led to widespread disappointment, emphasizing the critical role of education in shaping a resilient and unified nation (Sunarto & Sagirani, 2014). This governmental emphasis on character education is further supported by numerous academic discussions and publications, reflecting a broad recognition that Indonesia's challenges extend beyond mere economic or political issues to a foundational crisis of values and character (Ismail, 2016). Indeed, character education, particularly when rooted in religious values, has been identified as a non-negotiable necessity for Indonesia to address the alarming state of moral deviations and crime within its populace (Ismail, 2016). This underscores the integral role of educational reforms, particularly those emphasizing ethical and moral development, in fortifying the nation's social fabric against further erosion and fostering a more cohesive society. Furthermore, the integration of character values, particularly those aligned with Islamic teachings and the perspective of maqasid sharia, aims to cultivate a holistic understanding of human well-being, encompassing religious adherence, intellectual reasoning, and social harmony (Ibrahim, 2021). This holistic approach, which emphasizes the preservation of religion, soul, intellect, lineage, and property, is seen as crucial for realizing the overall well-being of individuals in both worldly and otherworldly contexts (Ibrahim, 2021). Without adequate character education, individuals may lack the moral and ethical understanding necessary for positive societal contribution, potentially leading to unethical actions such as fraud or corruption (Ilmi et al., 2023). Such deficiencies in moral consciousness, particularly evident within political and bureaucratic spheres, have manifested as pervasive corruption and other anomalies, effectively normalizing what should be aberrant behavior (Mu'minah, 2016). This widespread normalization of malfeasance directly contributes to the public disillusionment and anger, often culminating in widespread protests and social unrest as citizens perceive a systemic failure of leadership and ethical governance (Kusuma & Aman, 2021) (Pambayuningsih et al., 2021). This erosion of public trust is exacerbated by persistent reports of various irregularities, including drug trafficking, brawls, murders, and the distribution of pornographic content, further highlighting the pervasive moral crisis across nearly all segments of Indonesian society (Fahmi et al., 2023). This pervasive moral decay, reflected in diverse social ills, has fueled public frustration and disappointment with governmental institutions, leading to mass demonstrations and civil unrest (Hafid et al., 2020) (Permatasari & Hakam, 2018). Such societal dissatisfaction, often culminating in large-scale protests and even destructive acts, directly reflects a perceived failure of governance and a profound disillusionment with the integrity of legislative bodies. This escalating public discontent highlights a critical deficiency in moral and religious education, particularly among the younger generation, which has inadvertently contributed to a decline in national character values (Kafaabillah & Noorzeha, 2022) (Atmojo et al., 2021). Specifically, the current anti-corruption education paradigms are often criticized for their limited scope, primarily focusing on knowledge transfer rather than fostering comprehensive moral and ethical character development, which is crucial for genuinely combating corruption (Solikin, 2021). This limited approach means that while individuals may understand the legal ramifications of corruption, they often lack the intrinsic moral compass to resist engaging in such acts (Komalasari & Saripudin, 2015). The entanglement of politicians in corruption, spanning various political, socio-economic, and religious backgrounds, further indicates that factors beyond religious morality, such as the pursuit of power, high political costs, hedonistic lifestyles, and an ineffective law enforcement system, significantly contribute to this pervasive issue (Khoirin & Junaedi, 2022). Indeed, this complex interplay of socio-political and economic factors, coupled with a perceived decline in ethical standards, contributes to a climate of public distrust and dissatisfaction, which can manifest in widespread social unrest and demonstrations against governmental institutions. Mass demonstrations and destruction and looting due to the people's disappointment with the Indonesian House of Representatives. This pervasive disillusionment stems from a perceived systemic failure in governance, where issues such as corruption, collusion, and nepotism have historically flourished, undermining public trust and stability (Robertson-Snape, 1999). This erosion of public confidence is further exacerbated by the perception that legal frameworks and enforcement mechanisms are insufficient or selectively applied, fostering an environment where accountability is elusive and impunity is often the norm (Setiyono, 2017). This systemic dysfunction contributes significantly to the moral incapacity of citizens, weakening their commitment to the commonwealth and fostering a cycle of distrust and social decay (Dobel, 1978). The persistent presence of corruption, often linked to low civil servant salaries, ample opportunities for malfeasance, and a low probability of detection and punishment, further entrenches this disillusionment (Quah, 2003). This cycle of corruption, deeply embedded within the urban management landscape, particularly in major cities like Jakarta, significantly impedes the effective allocation of resources and the implementation of innovative solutions to pressing urban problems, thereby exacerbating the public's frustration (Server, 1996). Such widespread corruption, described as an "unbroken chain" since the 1998 reformation, has continually involved politicians and officials, leading to numerous arrests and imprisonments, yet it remains a deeply entrenched problem (Khoirin & Junaedi, 2022). This endemic corruption is not only concentrated in central power structures but extends to local village administrations, further eroding public trust and contributing to widespread protests (Srirejeki, 2020) (T.F. et al., 2018). This pervasive distrust is further fueled by a lack of transparency in local governance, with policy interpretation inconsistencies, official non-compliance, and an authoritarian bureaucratic culture impeding effective public engagement (Aeman et al., 2015). This lack of accountability and widespread perception of impunity often results in public frustration manifesting as significant social unrest and demonstrations, reflecting a deep-seated demand for greater governmental integrity and responsiveness (Msenge & Nzewi, 2021). Furthermore, the escalating number of corruption cases, particularly within local governments, signifies a profound institutional vulnerability that directly correlates with the growing public dissatisfaction and unrest (Maria et al., 2021). This situation is compounded by the deeply entrenched nature of corruption, which has been identified as widespread across all societal layers in Indonesia, demonstrating an alarming increase in both the number of cases and the financial losses to the state (Setiabudhi, 2014) (Baig, 2019). This persistent issue contributes significantly to the perception that Indonesia is among the most corrupt nations in Southeast Asia and globally (Muslihuddin & Bahtiar, 2020). The prevalence of graft and various forms of malfeasance within public officialdom, including but not limited to fraud, nepotism, and embezzlement, significantly undermines the delivery of essential social services, such as health, water supply, education, and security protection, thereby fueling widespread public discontent (LAUT et al., 2013). This ongoing struggle against corruption highlights the urgent need for comprehensive reforms aimed at strengthening governance, enhancing transparency, and fostering greater accountability across all levels of government to restore public faith in democratic institutions (Silitonga et al., 2015) (LAUT et al., 2013) (Ruslan et al., 2019) (Bueno, 2014). The detrimental impact of corruption on public trust and national development underscores the imperative for robust public administration principles and enhanced governmental transparency (Firmansyah & Syam, 2021) (Jannah et al., 2020). This necessitates a paradigm shift towards greater public accountability, particularly through the implementation of merit-based values in civil service management and comprehensive bureaucratic reforms aimed at increasing efficiency and reducing opportunities for corruption (Dwiputrianti, 2020) (Tjiptoherijanto, 2018). These reforms should ideally encompass rigorous oversight mechanisms, transparent financial reporting, and the active promotion of a culture of integrity to effectively curb malfeasance and rebuild societal confidence. However, the effectiveness of such reforms is contingent upon a fundamental reassessment of all institutional mechanisms, given the historical critiques of public sector reform initiatives aimed at combating unethical practices (Joseph et al., 2019).
This involves not only addressing the systemic issues that foster corruption but also empowering citizens through greater transparency and participation, which could serve as vital cornerstones for combating pervasive illicit activities (Smith et al., 2003). A framework for promoting accountability and transparency, drawing from the experiences of countries like the Philippines, involves reforms in institutions, mindsets, leadership, and citizen engagement (Brillantes & Fernandez, 2010). Ultimately, addressing the root causes of public dissatisfaction and fostering a more equitable and trustworthy governance system requires a multi-faceted approach that integrates ethical leadership, robust institutional frameworks, and active citizen participation. This integrated strategy aims to improve the quality of governance by ensuring public-sector efficiency and efficacy, making the sector more responsive to citizens' demands and aspirations, and enhancing political and administrative accountability (Ramasamy, 2020). This approach would systematically dismantle the avenues for malfeasance while simultaneously bolstering public confidence through demonstrated governmental responsiveness and integrity (Lekubu & Sibanda, 2021). Such measures are critical for re-establishing public trust and mitigating the social unrest that frequently arises from perceived governmental inadequacies and malfeasance (Amalia, 2023) (Sari & Muslim, 2023). The implementation of good governance principles, including participation, transparency, accountability, efficiency, and the rule of law, is therefore paramount to mitigating these challenges and fostering a more stable and prosperous society (LAUT et al., 2013). Furthermore, enhancing the capacity of civil society groups to represent their interests and hold the government accountable is crucial for achieving improved public sector performance and fostering adaptive, resilient, and people-centred public services (Grindle, 2004) (Marshall et al., 2021). Such comprehensive reforms, particularly those focusing on transparency and accountability, are essential for restoring public confidence and preventing further manifestations of social unrest that stem from governmental disillusionment (Malajos, 2025) (Lyrio et al., 2018). These principles inherently foster a more robust democratic framework by encouraging citizen engagement and ensuring that public officials are held responsible for their actions (Nyawo, 2017). Moreover, fostering an environment where information is readily accessible and understandable to the populace can empower citizens to actively participate in oversight, thereby strengthening democratic processes and reducing opportunities for corruption (Kosack & Fung, 2014) (Best & Yalezo, 2022). This enhanced transparency, coupled with mechanisms for meaningful citizen participation, can facilitate high-quality dialogue between public authorities and societal stakeholders, leading to more accountable governance (Srensen & Torfing, 2021). Indeed, effective public administration demands an independent judiciary and a robust legal framework to ensure contracts are executed fairly and public funds are managed with accountability, reinforcing the integrity of the state apparatus (Indiran, 2022). Moreover, fostering a culture of transparency within government systems, including the digitization of public services, is crucial for building trust and ensuring that governmental operations are traceable and explainable (Andrews et al., 2022). This necessitates not only the proactive disclosure of governmental information but also the establishment of accessible channels for public feedback and redress, thereby strengthening the symbiotic relationship between the state and its citizenry (Syam et al., 2021). Furthermore, embracing transparency in public administration is essential for fostering public trust and enhancing the effectiveness of policy implementation by allowing for greater public participation and evaluation of outcomes (Riyadh et al., 2023) (Androniceanu, 2021). This widespread knowledge enables citizens to actively monitor governmental activities and hold public administrators accountable for their decisions, ultimately reinforcing democratic principles (Brondoni & Bisio, 2017). This commitment to transparency and accountability serves as a fundamental safeguard against corruption and promotes administrative impartiality, aligning with global efforts to improve governance and public service delivery (Brondoni & Bisio, 2017) (Matheus et al., 2020). This increasing demand for transparency has recently fostered greater openness within public administrations, further reinforcing the perceived legitimacy of authorities and enhancing public trust (Keuffer & Mabillard, 2019) (Porumbescu, 2015). Consequently, the implementation of Freedom of Information laws and the rise of open government initiatives have significantly altered the landscape of public administration, encouraging greater information disclosure and citizen scrutiny (Romero & Arajo, 2019) (Romero & Arajo, 2023). These developments aim to bridge the gap between governmental institutions and the populace by making governance processes more accessible and comprehensible, thereby reducing opportunities for public discontent (Kosack & Fung, 2014) (Sgueo, 2019).
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