German, English, and French Era Philosophy

1. German era philosophy

This concise but comprehensive book provides an original history of German-language philosophy from the Middle Ages to today. In an accessible narrative that explains complex ideas in clear language, Vittorio Hsle traces the evolution of German philosophy and describes its central influence on other aspects of German culture, including literature, politics, and science.

Starting with the medieval mystic Meister Eckhart, the book addresses the philosophical changes brought about by Luther's Reformation, and then presents a detailed account of the classical age of German philosophy, including the work of Leibniz and Kant; the rise of a new form of humanities in Lessing, Hamann, Herder, and Schiller; the early Romantics; and the Idealists Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel.

The following chapters investigate the collapse of the German synthesis in Schopenhauer, Feuerbach, Marx, and Nietzsche. Turning to the twentieth century, the book explores the rise of analytical philosophy in Frege and the Vienna and Berlin circles; the foundation of the historical sciences in Neo-Kantianism and Dilthey; Husserl's phenomenology and its radical alteration by Heidegger; the Nazi philosophers Gehlen and Schmitt; and the main West German philosophers, including Gadamer, Jonas, and those of the two Frankfurt schools.

Arguing that there was a distinctive German philosophical tradition from the mid-eighteenth century to the mid-twentieth century, the book closes by examining why that tradition largely ended in the decades after World War II.

2. English era philosophy

In England the philosophy of the Enlightenment was advanced by thinkers of various faiths. Most experts think that one person is freer than the others, except of course some main schools.

One of the symptoms of Enlightenment in England is what is called Deism, a school of philosophy in English in the 18th century, which combines with Eduard Herbert's ideas which can be called the foundation of natural religious teachings.

According to Herbert, reason has absolute autonomy in the field of religion. Also Christianity was conquered by reason. On the basis of this opinion he opposes all beliefs based on revelation. Against all skepticism in the field of religion he intends as strongly as possible to affirm the basic natural truths of religion.

The basis of knowledge in the field of religion is some general understanding that is certain to everyone and is immediately apparent because of natural instincts, which precede all experiences in reason thinking. The measure of truth and certainty is the general agreement of all humans, because of the commonality of reason. The contents of that knowledge are about matters of religion and decency.

3. French era philosophy